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planemo upload commit 2e9511a184a1ca667c7be0c6321a36dc4e3d116d

author	jpayne
date	Tue, 18 Mar 2025 16:23:26 -0400
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jpayne@68	13 <head>
jpayne@68	14 <title>GNU gettext utilities: 2. The User's View</title>
jpayne@68	15
jpayne@68	16 <meta name="description" content="GNU gettext utilities: 2. The User's View">
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jpayne@68	42 <body lang="en" bgcolor="#FFFFFF" text="#000000" link="#0000FF" vlink="#800080" alink="#FF0000">
jpayne@68	43
jpayne@68	44 <table cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" border="0">
jpayne@68	45 <tr><td valign="middle" align="left">[<a href="gettext_1.html#SEC1" title="Beginning of this chapter or previous chapter"> << </a>]</td>
jpayne@68	46 <td valign="middle" align="left">[<a href="gettext_3.html#SEC16" title="Next chapter"> >> </a>]</td>
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jpayne@68	49 <td valign="middle" align="left">   </td>
jpayne@68	50 <td valign="middle" align="left">   </td>
jpayne@68	51 <td valign="middle" align="left">   </td>
jpayne@68	52 <td valign="middle" align="left">[<a href="gettext_toc.html#SEC_Top" title="Cover (top) of document">Top</a>]</td>
jpayne@68	53 <td valign="middle" align="left">[<a href="gettext_toc.html#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents">Contents</a>]</td>
jpayne@68	54 <td valign="middle" align="left">[<a href="gettext_21.html#SEC389" title="Index">Index</a>]</td>
jpayne@68	55 <td valign="middle" align="left">[<a href="gettext_abt.html#SEC_About" title="About (help)"> ? </a>]</td>
jpayne@68	56 </tr></table>
jpayne@68	57
jpayne@68	58 <hr size="2">
jpayne@68	59 <a name="Users"></a>
jpayne@68	60 <a name="SEC7"></a>
jpayne@68	61 <h1 class="chapter"> <a href="gettext_toc.html#TOC7">2. The User's View</a> </h1>
jpayne@68	62
jpayne@68	63 <p>Nowadays, when users log into a computer, they usually find that all
jpayne@68	64 their programs show messages in their native language – at least for
jpayne@68	65 users of languages with an active free software community, like French or
jpayne@68	66 German; to a lesser extent for languages with a smaller participation in
jpayne@68	67 free software and the GNU project, like Hindi and Filipino.
jpayne@68	68 </p>
jpayne@68	69 <p>How does this work? How can the user influence the language that is used
jpayne@68	70 by the programs? This chapter will answer it.
jpayne@68	71 </p>
jpayne@68	72
jpayne@68	73
jpayne@68	74 <a name="System-Installation"></a>
jpayne@68	75 <a name="SEC8"></a>
jpayne@68	76 <h2 class="section"> <a href="gettext_toc.html#TOC8">2.1 Operating System Installation</a> </h2>
jpayne@68	77
jpayne@68	78 <p>The default language is often already specified during operating system
jpayne@68	79 installation. When the operating system is installed, the installer
jpayne@68	80 typically asks for the language used for the installation process and,
jpayne@68	81 separately, for the language to use in the installed system. Some OS
jpayne@68	82 installers only ask for the language once.
jpayne@68	83 </p>
jpayne@68	84 <p>This determines the system-wide default language for all users. But the
jpayne@68	85 installers often give the possibility to install extra localizations for
jpayne@68	86 additional languages. For example, the localizations of KDE (the K
jpayne@68	87 Desktop Environment) and LibreOffice are often bundled separately, as one
jpayne@68	88 installable package per language.
jpayne@68	89 </p>
jpayne@68	90 <p>At this point it is good to consider the intended use of the machine: If
jpayne@68	91 it is a machine designated for personal use, additional localizations are
jpayne@68	92 probably not necessary. If, however, the machine is in use in an
jpayne@68	93 organization or company that has international relationships, one can
jpayne@68	94 consider the needs of guest users. If you have a guest from abroad, for
jpayne@68	95 a week, what could be his preferred locales? It may be worth installing
jpayne@68	96 these additional localizations ahead of time, since they cost only a bit
jpayne@68	97 of disk space at this point.
jpayne@68	98 </p>
jpayne@68	99 <p>The system-wide default language is the locale configuration that is used
jpayne@68	100 when a new user account is created. But the user can have his own locale
jpayne@68	101 configuration that is different from the one of the other users of the
jpayne@68	102 same machine. He can specify it, typically after the first login, as
jpayne@68	103 described in the next section.
jpayne@68	104 </p>
jpayne@68	105
jpayne@68	106 <a name="Setting-the-GUI-Locale"></a>
jpayne@68	107 <a name="SEC9"></a>
jpayne@68	108 <h2 class="section"> <a href="gettext_toc.html#TOC9">2.2 Setting the Locale Used by GUI Programs</a> </h2>
jpayne@68	109
jpayne@68	110 <p>The immediately available programs in a user's desktop come from a group
jpayne@68	111 of programs called a “desktop environment”; it usually includes the window
jpayne@68	112 manager, a web browser, a text editor, and more. The most common free
jpayne@68	113 desktop environments are KDE, GNOME, and Xfce.
jpayne@68	114 </p>
jpayne@68	115 <p>The locale used by GUI programs of the desktop environment can be specified
jpayne@68	116 in a configuration screen called “control center”, “language settings”
jpayne@68	117 or “country settings”.
jpayne@68	118 </p>
jpayne@68	119 <p>Individual GUI programs that are not part of the desktop environment can
jpayne@68	120 have their locale specified either in a settings panel, or through environment
jpayne@68	121 variables.
jpayne@68	122 </p>
jpayne@68	123 <p>For some programs, it is possible to specify the locale through environment
jpayne@68	124 variables, possibly even to a different locale than the desktop's locale.
jpayne@68	125 This means, instead of starting a program through a menu or from the file
jpayne@68	126 system, you can start it from the command-line, after having set some
jpayne@68	127 environment variables. The environment variables can be those specified
jpayne@68	128 in the next section (<a href="#SEC10">Setting the Locale through Environment Variables</a>); for some versions of
jpayne@68	129 KDE, however, the locale is specified through a variable <code>KDE_LANG</code>,
jpayne@68	130 rather than <code>LANG</code> or <code>LC_ALL</code>.
jpayne@68	131 </p>
jpayne@68	132
jpayne@68	133 <a name="Setting-the-POSIX-Locale"></a>
jpayne@68	134 <a name="SEC10"></a>
jpayne@68	135 <h2 class="section"> <a href="gettext_toc.html#TOC10">2.3 Setting the Locale through Environment Variables</a> </h2>
jpayne@68	136
jpayne@68	137 <p>As a user, if your language has been installed for this package, in the
jpayne@68	138 simplest case, you only have to set the <code>LANG</code> environment variable
jpayne@68	139 to the appropriate ‘<samp><var>ll</var>_<var>CC</var></samp>’ combination. For example,
jpayne@68	140 let's suppose that you speak German and live in Germany. At the shell
jpayne@68	141 prompt, merely execute
jpayne@68	142 ‘<samp>setenv LANG de_DE</samp>’ (in <code>csh</code>),
jpayne@68	143 ‘<samp>export LANG; LANG=de_DE</samp>’ (in <code>sh</code>) or
jpayne@68	144 ‘<samp>export LANG=de_DE</samp>’ (in <code>bash</code>). This can be done from your
jpayne@68	145 ‘<tt>.login</tt>’ or ‘<tt>.profile</tt>’ file, once and for all.
jpayne@68	146 </p>
jpayne@68	147
jpayne@68	148
jpayne@68	149 <a name="Locale-Names"></a>
jpayne@68	150 <a name="SEC11"></a>
jpayne@68	151 <h3 class="subsection"> <a href="gettext_toc.html#TOC11">2.3.1 Locale Names</a> </h3>
jpayne@68	152
jpayne@68	153 <p>A locale name usually has the form ‘<samp><var>ll</var>_<var>CC</var></samp>’. Here
jpayne@68	154 ‘<samp><var>ll</var></samp>’ is an ISO 639 two-letter language code, and
jpayne@68	155 ‘<samp><var>CC</var></samp>’ is an ISO 3166 two-letter country code. For example,
jpayne@68	156 for German in Germany, <var>ll</var> is <code>de</code>, and <var>CC</var> is <code>DE</code>.
jpayne@68	157 You find a list of the language codes in appendix <a href="gettext_18.html#SEC373">Language Codes</a> and
jpayne@68	158 a list of the country codes in appendix <a href="gettext_19.html#SEC376">Country Codes</a>.
jpayne@68	159 </p>
jpayne@68	160 <p>You might think that the country code specification is redundant. But in
jpayne@68	161 fact, some languages have dialects in different countries. For example,
jpayne@68	162 ‘<samp>de_AT</samp>’ is used for Austria, and ‘<samp>pt_BR</samp>’ for Brazil. The country
jpayne@68	163 code serves to distinguish the dialects.
jpayne@68	164 </p>
jpayne@68	165 <p>Many locale names have an extended syntax
jpayne@68	166 ‘<samp><var>ll</var>_<var>CC</var>.<var>encoding</var></samp>’ that also specifies the character
jpayne@68	167 encoding. These are in use because between 2000 and 2005, most users have
jpayne@68	168 switched to locales in UTF-8 encoding. For example, the German locale on
jpayne@68	169 glibc systems is nowadays ‘<samp>de_DE.UTF-8</samp>’. The older name ‘<samp>de_DE</samp>’
jpayne@68	170 still refers to the German locale as of 2000 that stores characters in
jpayne@68	171 ISO-8859-1 encoding – a text encoding that cannot even accommodate the Euro
jpayne@68	172 currency sign.
jpayne@68	173 </p>
jpayne@68	174 <p>Some locale names use ‘<samp><var>ll</var>_<var>CC</var>@<var>variant</var></samp>’ instead of
jpayne@68	175 ‘<samp><var>ll</var>_<var>CC</var></samp>’. The ‘<samp>@<var>variant</var></samp>’ can denote any kind of
jpayne@68	176 characteristics that is not already implied by the language <var>ll</var> and
jpayne@68	177 the country <var>CC</var>. It can denote a particular monetary unit. For example,
jpayne@68	178 on glibc systems, ‘<samp>de_DE@euro</samp>’ denotes the locale that uses the Euro
jpayne@68	179 currency, in contrast to the older locale ‘<samp>de_DE</samp>’ which implies the use
jpayne@68	180 of the currency before 2002. It can also denote a dialect of the language,
jpayne@68	181 or the script used to write text (for example, ‘<samp>sr_RS@latin</samp>’ uses the
jpayne@68	182 Latin script, whereas ‘<samp>sr_RS</samp>’ uses the Cyrillic script to write Serbian),
jpayne@68	183 or the orthography rules, or similar.
jpayne@68	184 </p>
jpayne@68	185 <p>On other systems, some variations of this scheme are used, such as
jpayne@68	186 ‘<samp><var>ll</var></samp>’. You can get the list of locales supported by your system
jpayne@68	187 for your language by running the command ‘<samp>locale -a \| grep '^<var>ll</var>'</samp>’.
jpayne@68	188 </p>
jpayne@68	189 <p>There is also a special locale, called ‘<samp>C</samp>’.
jpayne@68	190 When it is used, it disables all localization: in this locale, all programs
jpayne@68	191 standardized by POSIX use English messages and an unspecified character
jpayne@68	192 encoding (often US-ASCII, but sometimes also ISO-8859-1 or UTF-8, depending on
jpayne@68	193 the operating system).
jpayne@68	194 </p>
jpayne@68	195
jpayne@68	196 <a name="Locale-Environment-Variables"></a>
jpayne@68	197 <a name="SEC12"></a>
jpayne@68	198 <h3 class="subsection"> <a href="gettext_toc.html#TOC12">2.3.2 Locale Environment Variables</a> </h3>
jpayne@68	199
jpayne@68	200 <p>A locale is composed of several <em>locale categories</em>, see <a href="gettext_1.html#SEC4">Aspects in Native Language Support</a>.
jpayne@68	201 When a program looks up locale dependent values, it does this according to
jpayne@68	202 the following environment variables, in priority order:
jpayne@68	203 </p>
jpayne@68	204 <ol>
jpayne@68	205 <li><a name="IDX33"></a>
jpayne@68	206 </li><li> <code>LANGUAGE</code>
jpayne@68	207 <a name="IDX34"></a>
jpayne@68	208 </li><li> <code>LC_ALL</code>
jpayne@68	209 <a name="IDX35"></a>
jpayne@68	210 <a name="IDX36"></a>
jpayne@68	211 <a name="IDX37"></a>
jpayne@68	212 <a name="IDX38"></a>
jpayne@68	213 <a name="IDX39"></a>
jpayne@68	214 <a name="IDX40"></a>
jpayne@68	215 </li><li> <code>LC_xxx</code>, according to selected locale category:
jpayne@68	216 <code>LC_CTYPE</code>, <code>LC_NUMERIC</code>, <code>LC_TIME</code>, <code>LC_COLLATE</code>,
jpayne@68	217 <code>LC_MONETARY</code>, <code>LC_MESSAGES</code>, ...
jpayne@68	218 <a name="IDX41"></a>
jpayne@68	219 </li><li> <code>LANG</code>
jpayne@68	220 </li></ol>
jpayne@68	221
jpayne@68	222 <p>Variables whose value is set but is empty are ignored in this lookup.
jpayne@68	223 </p>
jpayne@68	224 <p><code>LANG</code> is the normal environment variable for specifying a locale.
jpayne@68	225 As a user, you normally set this variable (unless some of the other variables
jpayne@68	226 have already been set by the system, in ‘<tt>/etc/profile</tt>’ or similar
jpayne@68	227 initialization files).
jpayne@68	228 </p>
jpayne@68	229 <p><code>LC_CTYPE</code>, <code>LC_NUMERIC</code>, <code>LC_TIME</code>, <code>LC_COLLATE</code>,
jpayne@68	230 <code>LC_MONETARY</code>, <code>LC_MESSAGES</code>, and so on, are the environment
jpayne@68	231 variables meant to override <code>LANG</code> and affecting a single locale
jpayne@68	232 category only. For example, assume you are a Swedish user in Spain, and you
jpayne@68	233 want your programs to handle numbers and dates according to Spanish
jpayne@68	234 conventions, and only the messages should be in Swedish. Then you could
jpayne@68	235 create a locale named ‘<samp>sv_ES</samp>’ or ‘<samp>sv_ES.UTF-8</samp>’ by use of the
jpayne@68	236 <code>localedef</code> program. But it is simpler, and achieves the same effect,
jpayne@68	237 to set the <code>LANG</code> variable to <code>es_ES.UTF-8</code> and the
jpayne@68	238 <code>LC_MESSAGES</code> variable to <code>sv_SE.UTF-8</code>; these two locales come
jpayne@68	239 already preinstalled with the operating system.
jpayne@68	240 </p>
jpayne@68	241 <p><code>LC_ALL</code> is an environment variable that overrides all of these.
jpayne@68	242 It is typically used in scripts that run particular programs. For example,
jpayne@68	243 <code>configure</code> scripts generated by GNU autoconf use <code>LC_ALL</code> to make
jpayne@68	244 sure that the configuration tests don't operate in locale dependent ways.
jpayne@68	245 </p>
jpayne@68	246 <p>Some systems, unfortunately, set <code>LC_ALL</code> in ‘<tt>/etc/profile</tt>’ or in
jpayne@68	247 similar initialization files. As a user, you therefore have to unset this
jpayne@68	248 variable if you want to set <code>LANG</code> and optionally some of the other
jpayne@68	249 <code>LC_xxx</code> variables.
jpayne@68	250 </p>
jpayne@68	251 <p>The <code>LANGUAGE</code> variable is described in the next subsection.
jpayne@68	252 </p>
jpayne@68	253
jpayne@68	254 <a name="The-LANGUAGE-variable"></a>
jpayne@68	255 <a name="SEC13"></a>
jpayne@68	256 <h3 class="subsection"> <a href="gettext_toc.html#TOC13">2.3.3 Specifying a Priority List of Languages</a> </h3>
jpayne@68	257
jpayne@68	258 <p>Not all programs have translations for all languages. By default, an
jpayne@68	259 English message is shown in place of a nonexistent translation. If you
jpayne@68	260 understand other languages, you can set up a priority list of languages.
jpayne@68	261 This is done through a different environment variable, called
jpayne@68	262 <code>LANGUAGE</code>. GNU <code>gettext</code> gives preference to <code>LANGUAGE</code>
jpayne@68	263 over <code>LC_ALL</code> and <code>LANG</code> for the purpose of message handling,
jpayne@68	264 but you still need to have <code>LANG</code> (or <code>LC_ALL</code>) set to the primary
jpayne@68	265 language; this is required by other parts of the system libraries.
jpayne@68	266 For example, some Swedish users who would rather read translations in
jpayne@68	267 German than English for when Swedish is not available, set <code>LANGUAGE</code>
jpayne@68	268 to ‘<samp>sv:de</samp>’ while leaving <code>LANG</code> to ‘<samp>sv_SE</samp>’.
jpayne@68	269 </p>
jpayne@68	270 <p>Special advice for Norwegian users: The language code for Norwegian
jpayne@68	271 bokmål changed from ‘<samp>no</samp>’ to ‘<samp>nb</samp>’ recently (in 2003).
jpayne@68	272 During the transition period, while some message catalogs for this language
jpayne@68	273 are installed under ‘<samp>nb</samp>’ and some older ones under ‘<samp>no</samp>’, it is
jpayne@68	274 recommended for Norwegian users to set <code>LANGUAGE</code> to ‘<samp>nb:no</samp>’ so that
jpayne@68	275 both newer and older translations are used.
jpayne@68	276 </p>
jpayne@68	277 <p>In the <code>LANGUAGE</code> environment variable, but not in the other
jpayne@68	278 environment variables, ‘<samp><var>ll</var>_<var>CC</var></samp>’ combinations can be
jpayne@68	279 abbreviated as ‘<samp><var>ll</var></samp>’ to denote the language's main dialect.
jpayne@68	280 For example, ‘<samp>de</samp>’ is equivalent to ‘<samp>de_DE</samp>’ (German as spoken in
jpayne@68	281 Germany), and ‘<samp>pt</samp>’ to ‘<samp>pt_PT</samp>’ (Portuguese as spoken in Portugal)
jpayne@68	282 in this context.
jpayne@68	283 </p>
jpayne@68	284 <p>Note: The variable <code>LANGUAGE</code> is ignored if the locale is set to
jpayne@68	285 ‘<samp>C</samp>’. In other words, you have to first enable localization, by setting
jpayne@68	286 <code>LANG</code> (or <code>LC_ALL</code>) to a value other than ‘<samp>C</samp>’, before you can
jpayne@68	287 use a language priority list through the <code>LANGUAGE</code> variable.
jpayne@68	288 </p>
jpayne@68	289
jpayne@68	290 <a name="Working-in-a-Windows-console"></a>
jpayne@68	291 <a name="SEC14"></a>
jpayne@68	292 <h2 class="section"> <a href="gettext_toc.html#TOC14">2.4 Obtaining good output in a Windows console</a> </h2>
jpayne@68	293
jpayne@68	294 <p>On Windows, consoles such as the one started by the <code>cmd.exe</code>
jpayne@68	295 program do input and output in an encoding, called “OEM code page”,
jpayne@68	296 that is different from the encoding that text-mode programs usually use,
jpayne@68	297 called “ANSI code page”. (Note: This problem does not exist for
jpayne@68	298 Cygwin consoles; these consoles do input and output in the UTF-8
jpayne@68	299 encoding.) As a workaround, you may request that the programs produce
jpayne@68	300 output in this “OEM” encoding. To do so, set the environment variable
jpayne@68	301 <code>OUTPUT_CHARSET</code> to the “OEM” encoding, through a command such as
jpayne@68	302 </p><table><tr><td> </td><td><pre class="smallexample">set OUTPUT_CHARSET=CP850
jpayne@68	303 </pre></td></tr></table>
jpayne@68	304 <p>Note: This has an effect only on strings looked up in message catalogs;
jpayne@68	305 other categories of text are usually not affected by this setting.
jpayne@68	306 Note also that this environment variable also affects output sent to a
jpayne@68	307 file or to a pipe; output to a file is most often expected to be in the
jpayne@68	308 “ANSI” or in the UTF-8 encoding.
jpayne@68	309 </p>
jpayne@68	310 <p>Here are examples of the “ANSI” and “OEM” code pages:
jpayne@68	311 </p>
jpayne@68	312 <table>
jpayne@68	313 <thead><tr><th><p> Territories   </p></th><th><p>   ANSI encoding   </p></th><th><p>   OEM encoding
jpayne@68	314 </p></th></tr></thead>
jpayne@68	315 <tr><td><p> Western Europe   </p></td><td><p>   CP1252   </p></td><td><p>   CP850
jpayne@68	316 </p></td></tr>
jpayne@68	317 <tr><td><p> Slavic countries (Latin 2)   </p></td><td><p>   CP1250   </p></td><td><p>   CP852
jpayne@68	318 </p></td></tr>
jpayne@68	319 <tr><td><p> Baltic countries   </p></td><td><p>   CP1257   </p></td><td><p>   CP775
jpayne@68	320 </p></td></tr>
jpayne@68	321 <tr><td><p> Russia   </p></td><td><p>   CP1251   </p></td><td><p>   CP866
jpayne@68	322 </p></td></tr>
jpayne@68	323 </table>
jpayne@68	324
jpayne@68	325
jpayne@68	326 <a name="Installing-Localizations"></a>
jpayne@68	327 <a name="SEC15"></a>
jpayne@68	328 <h2 class="section"> <a href="gettext_toc.html#TOC15">2.5 Installing Translations for Particular Programs</a> </h2>
jpayne@68	329
jpayne@68	330 <p>Languages are not equally well supported in all packages using GNU
jpayne@68	331 <code>gettext</code>, and more translations are added over time. Usually, you
jpayne@68	332 use the translations that are shipped with the operating system
jpayne@68	333 or with particular packages that you install afterwards. But you can also
jpayne@68	334 install newer localizations directly. For doing this, you will need an
jpayne@68	335 understanding where each localization file is stored on the file system.
jpayne@68	336 </p>
jpayne@68	337 <a name="IDX42"></a>
jpayne@68	338 <p>For programs that participate in the Translation Project, you can start
jpayne@68	339 looking for translations here:
jpayne@68	340 <a href="https://translationproject.org/team/index.html">https://translationproject.org/team/index.html</a>.
jpayne@68	341 </p>
jpayne@68	342 <p>For programs that are part of the KDE project, the starting point is:
jpayne@68	343 <a href="https://l10n.kde.org/">https://l10n.kde.org/</a>.
jpayne@68	344 </p>
jpayne@68	345 <p>For programs that are part of the GNOME project, the starting point is:
jpayne@68	346 <a href="https://wiki.gnome.org/TranslationProject">https://wiki.gnome.org/TranslationProject</a>.
jpayne@68	347 </p>
jpayne@68	348 <p>For other programs, you may check whether the program's source code package
jpayne@68	349 contains some ‘<tt><var>ll</var>.po</tt>’ files; often they are kept together in a
jpayne@68	350 directory called ‘<tt>po/</tt>’. Each ‘<tt><var>ll</var>.po</tt>’ file contains the
jpayne@68	351 message translations for the language whose abbreviation of <var>ll</var>.
jpayne@68	352 </p>
jpayne@68	353
jpayne@68	354 <table cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" border="0">
jpayne@68	355 <tr><td valign="middle" align="left">[<a href="#SEC7" title="Beginning of this chapter or previous chapter"> << </a>]</td>
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jpayne@68	360 <td valign="middle" align="left">   </td>
jpayne@68	361 <td valign="middle" align="left">   </td>
jpayne@68	362 <td valign="middle" align="left">[<a href="gettext_toc.html#SEC_Top" title="Cover (top) of document">Top</a>]</td>
jpayne@68	363 <td valign="middle" align="left">[<a href="gettext_toc.html#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents">Contents</a>]</td>
jpayne@68	364 <td valign="middle" align="left">[<a href="gettext_21.html#SEC389" title="Index">Index</a>]</td>
jpayne@68	365 <td valign="middle" align="left">[<a href="gettext_abt.html#SEC_About" title="About (help)"> ? </a>]</td>
jpayne@68	366 </tr></table>
jpayne@68	367 <p>
jpayne@68	368 <font size="-1">
jpayne@68	369 This document was generated by <em>Bruno Haible</em> on <em>February, 21 2024</em> using <a href="https://www.nongnu.org/texi2html/"><em>texi2html 1.78a</em></a>.
jpayne@68	370 </font>
jpayne@68	371 <br>
jpayne@68	372
jpayne@68	373 </p>
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Mercurial > repos > rliterman > csp2

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